Comparing Education and Medicine Research Articles

According to the American Psychological Association (APA) (2010), Research Articles (RAs) are documents undertaken by researchers which are divided into different sections: Title, Abstracts, Acknowledgements, Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussions, Recommendations, References and Appendixes. The purpose of the present study is to analyze and compare different sections of two articles in the education and medicine fields.

According to Swales and Feak (1994), researchers write their introductions using organizational patterns which contain moves or cycles. Introductions are composed of three moves which go from the general topic to a particular situation, i.e., creating a research paper, establishing a niche and occupying it. Regarding the introduction of both RAs, the three moves are present as part of the organizational patterns.

On the one hand, Sun and Chang (2010) refer to blogs as one of the best received applications in the Web 2.0 era which have changed the different uses of internet. In other words, they refer to what has been done showing that the research in this subject is important; considering this Move 1.    

 On the other hand, Aaby et al. (2009) refer to the impact of a vaccine on mortality which is proportional to the vaccine’s efficacy and the contributions of the target disease to overall mortality. All in all, they might show relevance for the study and introduce research in the area; considering this Move 1.

Both articles may establish a niche and indicate the gap that has been found in the area, in that way, they are referring to Move 2. Sun and Chang (2010) argue that the use of first personal pronouns which represents visible affirmation of one’s role in their written discourse- between writers and L2 (Language 2) Hong Kong undergraduate novice writers, it was found a clear avoidance of first personal pronouns among L2 (Language 2)  writers when making arguments or claims.

Aaby et al. (2009) claim that “Though some studies have documented that PPD (tuberculin purified protein derivative or Mantoux test) and scar reactions get larger with revaccination, others have found no effect of revaccination on protection against pulmonary tuberculosis but found that it might improve protection against leprosy” (p.2). To sum up, in both articles researchers present their motivation for the study, indicate the gap that has been found in the area, raise questions about the situation and expand previous knowledge.

Both articles state the nature of the present papers and outline the purposes; in that way, they are referring to Move 3.  Sun and Chang (2010) show how useful is to keep blogs through the process of collaborative dialogues for learning about academic writing as well as academic identities and construction of authorship, whereas Aaby et al. (2009) make emphasis on  whether revaccination with BCG is associated with a reduction in childhood mortality through a randomized trial.

As regards the analysis of the methods sections, Sun and Chang (2010) include participants, procedures and data analysis subsections. These three subsections are typed at the left margin and the mostly used tense is past passive voice. A large part of the data collected through descriptive statistics consists mainly of qualitative evidence. Table 1 illustrates the language used by the participants in their blogs in the procedures subsection (Sun & Chang, 2010, p.47).

 Aaby et al. (2009) introduce participants subsection and intervention and main outcome measure as subtitles at the start of the section. The methods section is divided into participants, materials and procedures subsections and into different subtitles such as explorative and statistical analyses. The subtitles are typed at the left margin and the mostly used tense is past passive voice, but it is possible to find present passive. The data collected is illustrated through hazard ratios for mortality. Tables and figures showing mortality curves and rates are also illustrated (Aaby et al., 2009, pp 3-6).

All in all, a comparison between both study researchers based on the education and medicine fields is established in which the three moves could be well described in the present paper. Considering the analysis of the methods sections, participants, materials and procedures might be well analyzed in each of the study researchers.

This research paper may attract readers´attention because it establishes the main points between two different articles which make emphasis on different fields. It seems that on the one hand, Sun and Chang (2010) through their Research Article (RA) demonstrate the usefulness of collaborative dialogues on blogs for learners to become EFL academic writers. On the other hand, Aaby et al. (2009) analyze how profitable is the effect of revaccination with BCG in early childhood on mortality.

References

American Psychological Association (2010). APA formatting and style guide. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01.

Aaby,P., Lisse, I., Ravn, H., Rodrigues, A., Roth, A., Stabell Ben, C., Whittle, H., & Yazdanbakhsh, M. (2009). Effect of revaccination with BCG in early childhood on mortality: Randomized trial in Guinea- Bissau. Retrieved June 2012, from http://bmj2010;340:c671

Chang, Y. & Sun, Y. (2012). Language Learning & Technology: Blogging to Learn:

Becoming EFL Academic Writers Through Collaborative Dialogues, vol. 16, nº 1.

Retrieved June 2012, from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/february2012/sunchang.pdf

Sun, Y., & Chang, Y. (2010). When technology speaks language: An evaluation of the use of course management systems in content-specific contexts. ReCALL, 22 (3), 332–355.

Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University if Michigan Press.

The Importance of Abstracts in the Academic Writing

An abstract is considered a formal summary which transmits clear, accurate and concise information. The abstract is typed in a separate page and inserted between the title and the first page of a paper. Hubbuch (1996) defines abstracts “as brief summaries of the major points made by an author in a book or article” (p.126). The aim of the present study is to analyze and compare different abstracts of different articles from medicine and education fields.

Abstracts are divided into different sections: Introduction/background or Study design/objective, Materials and Methods, Results and Conclusions. According to Swales and Feak (1994), abstracts can be classified as the one included at the beginning of a paper and conferences abstracts. There are other types of abstracts: informative, indicative, unstructured or structured (Swales & Feak, 1994; Swales, 1990).

On the one hand, in the articles based on the medicine field, Gotzsche, Jorgensen and Zahl (2009) and Austin et al. (2009) introduce informative abstracts since they describe what the researchers did and provide readers with the main findings based on heavy data. Unstructured abstracts are also introduced because they consist of one long, unbroken paragraph.

On the other hand, in the articles based upon the education field, Rammal (2006) and King (2002) present indicative abstracts which describe what the researchers intend to do and indicate what kind of research has been done. Structured abstracts are also presented which contain bolded or italicized headings.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA) (2008), there are five levels of headings which organize hierarchy the presentation of the information in a document to orient the reader. The heading structure is divided into sections; each one follows a top –down progression from the highest level of heading in order to outline a paper.

Gotzsche, Jorgensen and Zahl (2009) present the Results and the Discussion sections with three subheadings whereas Austin et al. (2009) introduce two subheadings in the Methods and Discussions sections. Rammal (2006) divides one of the sections into four subheadings whereas King (2002) divides a section into two subheadings.

Broadly speaking, the four abstracts analysed in the present paper may be brief and accurate and they might contain specific data on their specialized field, that is to say, medicine and education. They are the most important paragraphs in each journal and they are written in scientific prose which is used in academic documents. 

In the articles based upon the medicine field, the primary audience might be any reader in the field, since the abstracts include heavy data and describe what researchers did. In fact, Gotzsche, Jorgensen and Zahl (2009) describe what researchers did in order to determine breast cancer mortality in organised mammography screening in Denmark whereas Austin et al. (2009) describe what researchers did in order to determine the association of non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery. 

In the articles based upon the education field, the primary audience might be conference reviewers since the abstracts do not include specific results and describe what the researchers intend to do. To put it another way, Rammal (2006) intends to provide teachers of English as Foreign Language (EFL) with teaching methods which may be implemented in the classroom whereas King (2002) ) intends to provide teachers of English as Foreign Language (EFL) with pedagogical options dealing with the use of DVD feature films in the classroom.

All in all, the four abstracts do not include evaluative language since summary writers should avoid temptation, i.e., they should not include personal subject language which evaluates the sources. They are objective since personal opinions are not included and the authors’ main ideas are reported. As Reid (1994) states “The function of the conclusion is for the summary writer to restate the original conclusions found in the article.”

References

American Psychological Association (2008). Publication Manual (5^th ed.). Washington, DC: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

Austin, P. C., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R. F., Hux, J. E., Laupacis, A., & Wijeysundera, D. N. (2009). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: population based cohort study.

Retrieved June 2012, from http://bmj2010;340:b5526

Gotzsche, P. C., Jorgensen, K, J., & Zahl, P. H. (2009). Breast cancer mortality in organised mammography screening in Denmark: comparative study.

Retrieved June 2012, from http://bmj2010;340:c1241

Hubbuch, S. M. (1996). Writing research papers across the curriculum. (4th ed.). Harcourt Brace: Fort Worth, TX.

King, J. (2002). Using DVD feature films in the EFL classroom. The weekly column. [Abstract]. Retrieved June 2011, from http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/February2002/art882002.htm

Ramal, S. (2006). Video in the EFL classroom. Retrieved June 2011, from http://www.usingenglish.com/articles/video-in-efl-classrooms.html

Reid, J. M. (1994). The process of paragraph writing (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Analyzing and Comparing Specific Sections in Articles

To start with, Research Papers (RPs) are concerned not only with introduction and methods sections but also results, discussions and conclusions sections. The present study deals with the analysis and comparison of the last three sections taking into account the characteristics of two articles in the education and medicine field through a comparative analysis.

On the one hand, in the Action Research (AR) on education the results were described and discussed in the same section. Barrs (2010) analyzed the results in two periods. Whereas the former described the initial stage of the Action Research (AR) based on a research question and how the data was collected through tables, the latter considered the initial hypothesis in order to take action, observe and reflect on the results achieved.

On the other hand, in the article on medicine the results section was written isolated from the discussed section. Aspelund et al (2010) analyzed the results through three subtitles: Baseline Associations, Hazard Ratios with Disease Outcomes and Chronic Kidney Disease and Coronary Heart Disease Risk Prediction. In this case, results were shown through tables and figures which provided quantitative information to the reader.

According to Swales (1998), tables and or/figures reflect the data collected with text which should be logically ordered. Barrs (2010) formulated a research question and presented the data collected through a text and the illustration of five tables in the first period of Action Research (AR). As shown in Tables 1-3, the results were the students’ postings and replies on a forum platform during a four-week programme. Some results were based on data associated with the reasons for the low number of replies to posts through a post project questionnaire (see Table 4) and other results were related to students’ needs for more help with using the forum platform (Table 5). The outcomes that are related to question(s) or hypotheses of the paper are described in the results section. During the second period and after the data collection of the pilot investigation, Barrs (2010) generated a research hypothesis and the responses were associated with the total number of students´ postings, replies and a breakdown of the type of replies (Tables 6-8).

The main findings of the research are shown in the results section without interpreting their meanings.  Aspelund et al (2010) presented the data collected through a text, tables and figures. Swales (1998) explains that researchers use text to state the results collected. As shown in Table 2, the results were related to demographic and clinical baseline characteristics by chronic kidney disease (CKD) status. Some results were connected with the associations of renal function with coronary heart disease and non-vascular mortality (see Table 3) and other results were based on hazard ratios of renal function and risk of coronary heart disease and non-vascular mortality (Figure 1). As shown in Figure 2, the results were associated with hazard ratios on risk of vascular and non-vascular outcomes in people with chronic kidney disease compared to people without chronic kidney disease.

According to Barrs (2010), “ an Action Research (AR) project was initiated with a Computer- Mediated Communication (CMC) programme being implemented during an eight-week summer vacation period, in order to provide a platform for students to interact in the target language outside of class” (p.10). The first period involves a pilot investigation based on a four-week project in which the results reveal that lack of time, interest in the discussion topic and general interactional problems with the forum platform contributed to the low amount of interaction on the site. The second period is related to the findings from the initial investigation. Taking into consideration the results from the first period, there is a large amount of target language interaction during the eight –week summer vacation.

According to Aspelund et al (2010), the research discusses the associations of chronic kidney disease stages with major cardiovascular disease and non-vascular mortality in the general adult population. Results reveal that even the earliest stages of chronic kidney disease are associated with higher risk of coronary heart disease for people without manifest vascular disease and that advanced stages are associated with non-vascular mortality, particularly deaths from causes other than cancer. Aspelund et al (2010) discuss “(…) assessment of chronic kidney disease (…) improves prediction of risk for coronary heart disease in this population” (p.1).

All in all, a comparison between both study researchers based on education and medicine is established in which the Results, Discussions and Conclusions sections could be well described in the present paper. Considering each of the three sections might be well analyzed in each of the study researchers. This research paper may attract readers’ attention because it establishes the main points between two different articles which make emphasis on different fields. It seems that on the one hand, Barrs (2010) through her Action Research (AR) demonstrates that the CMC programme provides a useful platform for students to communicate in the target language outside of class. On the other hand, Aspelund et al determine that further studies are needed to investigate associations of chronic kidney disease and non-vascular mortality from deaths not attributed to cancer.

References

Aspelund, T., Chowdhury, R., Danesh, J., Di Angelantonio, E.,Gudnason, V., & Sarwar, N. (2010). BMJ Research: Chronic kidney disease and risk of major cardiovascular disease and non-vascular mortality: prospective population based cohort study. Retrieved April 2012, from http://bmj2010;341:c4986

Barrs, K. (2010). Language Learning & Technology: Action Research. Fostering Computer- Mediated L2 Interaction Beyond the Classroom.  February 2012, vol. 16, nº 1, pp.10-25. Retrieved April 2012, from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/february2012/actionresearch.pdf

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

A book critique of The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom

Krashen (1983) is a well known researcher in the field of Second Language Acquisition because he proposed a theoretical model based on five interrelated hypotheses: The Acquisition -Learning Hypothesis, The Natural Order Hypothesis, The Monitor Hypothesis, The Input Hypothesis and The Affective Filter Hypothesis. According to Krashen (1983), “the central hypothesis of the theory is that language acquisition occurs in only one way: by understanding messages” (p. 1). This means that acquisition is based primarily on what we hear and what we understand, not what we talk”

As Krashen (1983) states, “the goal (…) according to this view is to supply comprehensible input, (…) and to bring the student to the point where he or she can understand language outside the classroom” (p.1).

Krashen (1983) also argues,

“the Natural Approach (NA) is based on an empirically grounded theory of second language acquisition and is relatively simple to use and it is easily adapted to a variety of situations (e.g. foreign language, public school, bilingual programs, etc) (p.1).

This careful study presents a formal and academic writing style and it implies a deep analysis of the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theory, in which teachers and students are taken into account. This useful book provides not only examples of the theory discussed, but also interesting activities to implement in the language classroom, focused on the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). However, as Krashen (1983) points out, “What looked reasonable to the university professor on paper did not always work out in the classroom” (p.1).

This book consists of seven chapters, a preface and a bibliography.  In the first chapter, Krashen (1983) compares Traditional with Non- Traditional Approaches to Language Teaching. In the second chapter, he introduces The Second Language Acquisition Theory. In the third chapter, he describes the implications of Second Language Acquisition Theory for the Classroom. In the fourth chapter, he explores the way to get started with the Natural Approach. In the fifth chapter, he emphasises on the Oral Communication Development through Acquisition Activities. In the sixth chapter, the author provides Additional Sources of Input for Acquisition and Learning. In the seventh chapter, Krashen suggests Testing and Classroom Management. 

To conclude, this significant book provides a direct test of the Natural Approach from theory to practice, which helps teachers to focus on different techniques through a variety of classroom activities. In this book, Krashen (1983) deeply analyses the Second Language Acquisition Theory through the seven chapters and he also suggests a curriculum organization. That is the reason why The Natural Approach is highly recommended for language teachers and second language learners. However, the application of the theory, the methodology, is not always adequately field-tested. This book should have included other researchers such as Mc Laughlin (1987) or Gregg (1984) who critiqued not only Krashen (1983) distinction between acquisition and learning processes, but also Krashen´s “zero option” for grammar instruction.

References

Gregg, K. (1984). Krashen’s monitor and Occam’s razor. Applied Linguistics, 5, 79-100. Retrieved November 2011, from http://www.stanford.edu/~kenro/LAU/ICLangLit/NaturalApproach.htm

Krashen, S.D., & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. London, UK: Prentice Hall Europe.

McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of Second Language Learning. London, UK: Edward Arnold. Retrieved November 2011, from http://www.stanford.edu/~kenro/LAU/ICLangLit/NaturalApproach.htm

My First Teaching Experience

When I was a student from an institute, more or less 4 years ago, I was practicing in a primary school from Berazategui. At that time, I was not working at school so I was not very experienced. I had lessons on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 9 to 10 in the morning. It was a 5^th year and the students had a good behaviour, except for one student, who was the leader of the group and had serious discipline problems. He always bothered his classmates and he never did the homework. There were 32 students from a middle social class. I observed the students for two weeks and then I started working. I should deliver ten lessons.

My first impression as a student was that the teacher taught English in a boring way. The teacher spoke English and Spanish to help students understand. Most of the times, he did not use gestures or facial expressions. He used photocopies rather than different resources such as posters or flashcards to make students enjoy the classes. He was so exposed that students could not infer meaning. As Bowers (1987) states, “communicative competence implies that individuals and groups with greater skill in using (and manipulating) the language system will exercise power in naming and thus controlling how others will view social reality" (as cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p.1).

As I had a program to follow, I decided to continue with it. I started working on clothes words and people’s clothes descriptions since they learnt vocabulary about the weather and the four seasons. My teaching goal was to make students aware that English is a language they can use in real life situations. As Giroux (1983) puts it, “language is a social event that is defined, shaped, and constrained by the culture of the setting in which it is used” (Kelly-Kleese, 2001, p.1). My learning goal was not only to teach how to describe people’s clothes, but also to create a set of rules for them to behave properly in class.

My teacher told me to speak English all the time; I did the best to do so, but on many occasions I could not. I was doing great since it was my third week. Students continued having bad behaviour but at least they did not run away from the class. The rebel student, who never spoke English during my observation classes, participated in class. It was really amazing for me that at least he could speak a word in English. On the fifth week, I had to evaluate them, during the first hour students had to describe orally their own clothes and on the second they had the written test.

 Before leaving, students gave me letters and nice drawings. The leader of the group was one of them, I could not believe it. The things they told me were amazing. I was very happy because it was a nice experience as a teacher I have had in my career. The following class I returned to give the exams back and I also wrote a very emotive letter telling students about my feelings towards them. I was very sad to say good bye but that was it. I know that they learned a lot of vocabulary and structures, they did it great in the exam, but I learned more than them. I learned that whatever you give, then nicer things will give back to you.

References

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor´s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463.

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA Community College Review: Community College Scholarship and Discourse. Community College Review Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541.

Reflecting on Critical Incidents

At present, there is a deep necessity to reflect upon the teacher education and teachers´ practices through professional judgement. Critical Incidents (CI) are tools developed for teacher self development which imply to overcome different classroom events. "La reflexion es el eje que relaciona, confronta, diferencia e interioriza ideas nuevas con las anteriores" ( Marcelo, 1996; Day, 1994).

González, Escartín and Pérez (2003) point out:

 “Critical incidents are described as a pre-service and in- service teacher education strategy. The idea is to integrate theory and practice. The diversity of teachers and the possibility for the reflexive analysis of classrooms events, often solved in a spontaneous way, are the basis of this powerful strategy” (p. 101).

Nowadays, the relationship between teacher and students has changed due to the social changes of the society and the education. Professional teachers are those who promote social interaction and analyse classroom difficulties through the use of the critical incidents. As Fernández and Fernández (1994) state, “Incidente critico es una estrategia  estructurada y en la cual se presenta a profesores situaciones escritas de la enseñanza (una o varias frases, un párrafo, una página,…) y se les pide que tomen una decisión en función de la información que se les proporciona (…)” (p.93).

In fact, the actual challenge is the improvement of the teacher education through the design of a curriculum in which contents and critical incidents are parts of the teachers´ knowledge. Critical incidents imply a context, a problem, causes and solutions. According to González, Escartín and Pérez (2003), “El tratamiento de incidentes críticos es apropiado para ejercitar una dinámica de grupo donde el profesor novel explicita su posicionamiento acerca de muchos tópicos recurrentes en la docencia” (p. 105).                                                                                                

To conclude, not only pre- service teachers but also in- service teachers take advantage of critical incidents as a powerful tool. It is very important to create a good atmosphere in the classroom among teacher and students and among students through constant feedback in order to face any difficulty which may arises within the classroom. That is the reason why critical incidents are relevant in the teaching-learning process because they contribute to personal and professional development.

References

Fernández González, J., Elórtegui Escartín, N & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). “Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de Ciencias de la Naturaleza”. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formaciòn del Profesorado, año/vol.1, número 001. Universidad de Zaragoza. Zaragoza,  España 101-112. Retrieved October 2011, from http://redalyc.uaemex.ms

Fernández, T & Fernández, J. (1994). “Técnica de trabajo con profesores sobre su practica docente:< Terapia de Knoll>”. Retrieved October 2011, from Investigación en la  escuela, 22,91-103.

EAP DISCOURSE COMMUNITY

The importance of a discourse community

Swales (1980) establishes some basic criteria to recognize as well as to check whether a particular group of people belongs to an academic discourse community or not (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.13).

An evidence of common goals is identified as Kelly- Kleese (2001) indicates “increasing perceptions of community college communicative competence, and moving its professionals into positions of legitimate power within the larger higher education discourse community” (as cited in Editor’s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators, 2001, p. 1)

As regards participatory mechanisms, Kelly –Kleese (2001) also states that “language can help you meet these goals through an understanding of the community college as a discourse community (p.1)

Apart from these goals; another important characteristic is the information exchange among members of a discourse community. The idea of what is learned and how learning takes place are determinants of people’s interactions. As Soltis (1981) points out  “the sociocentric view of knowledge and learning holds that what we take as knowledge and how we think and express ideas are the products of the interactions of groups of people over time” (as cited in Teachers need teachers to grow, 2004, p.1 )

Learning must be authentic and connected to the teachers’ classroom practice in order to be meaningful. That is the reason why community-specific genres are essential within a discourse community.

The discourse community may use shared and specialized terminology.  Kelly-Kleese (2001) has suggested that the community members share their knowledge and interpretations and thus create policy and redefine language. The term "open door", for example, has acquired a specific meaning within the college discourse community, meaning that any high education graduate can access postsecondary education ( p.1)

To achieve a high general level of expertise, McLaughlin & Talbert (1993) indicate “collaborative culture and an environment that supports risk-taking and reflection are required by any discourse community” (p.15)

To conclude, language learning is a social activity which implies people’s interaction. Understanding the community college as a discourse community means that their members are intercommunicated and it is helpful to move community college professionals into positions of legitimate power, increasing their esteem within that community.

References

Pintos, V. & Crimi, Y. (2010). Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463

Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers Need Teachers To Grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405

Kelly-Kleese, C (2004) UCLA Community College Review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541